西藏西部10世纪晚期至11世纪佛教艺术的题材与风格
——以金刚界曼荼罗和法界语自在文殊曼荼罗图像的分析为中心
考古学及博物馆学专业
研究生 张长虹 指导教师 霍巍教授
10世纪晚期至11世纪的西藏西部在西藏佛教发展史上有着重要的地位。公元842年，吐蕃末代赞普朗达玛被刺，吐蕃王朝分裂。吐蕃王室的后裔10世纪在西藏西部地区建立起了普兰古格王国。为了振兴佛教，稳定社会民心，古格王益西沃和大译师仁钦桑布致力重新从印度、克什米尔等地引入佛教，史称西藏佛教的后宏期。这一重要的历史时期在西藏西部地区留下了大量的佛教遗迹。本文通过对这些佛教遗迹保存的佛教壁画的题材与风格的研究，来观察后宏期初期这一重要历史时期西藏西部佛教艺术发展的一个基本脉络及其背后的文化历史背景。
这一时期的佛教艺术大致可分为四个不同的发展阶段。
第一阶段为10世纪晚期。约从986年古格王发布诏令，到996年第一批佛教寺院的建立。这一时期的保存较好的典型遗址是塔波寺的后殿，创建于996年。该殿的主要塑像题材是大日如来、观音菩萨和金刚手三部组合。类似的三部组合在吐蕃王朝时期就已有发现，古格王对这种题材的选择可能是为了标榜自己的王权正统和教法纯正。
这一时期的壁画主要发现于塔波寺门廊以及转经道和后殿的某些部位。艺术风格稚拙，属于A型。该风格尚未受到克什米尔艺术的影响，表现出比较浓厚的受邻近西北印度地区和当地文化的影响，有学者用“喜马拉雅风格”来指代这一时期的佛教艺术。
第二阶段为11世纪的前25年，即大约从1001年至1024年。托林寺佛塔、皮央I区79号石窟和玛拉卡则卡尔佛塔是属于这一时期的遗存。
这一时期的图像构图仍然以三部组合为主，但是加入了八供养女神、四摄卫菩萨等金刚顶系的尊神，因此在题材上融合了胎藏界、金刚界两界曼荼罗中的图像内容，可能反映了规范统一的密教经典和仪轨出现之前的一种状态。图像题材在构图上呈竖列式的构图方式，即在主尊塑像的两侧，竖列配置女供养、摄卫菩萨和菩萨像。
这一时期的艺术风格主要为克什米尔的艺术风格，与1001年仁钦桑布从克什米尔带回32名艺术家有关。这一时期的克什米尔的艺术风格有两个不同的版本，分别为托林寺西北塔和东北塔所代表的B型I式和B型II式。
这两种不同版本的克什米尔艺术风格之间不存在年代的相对早晚关系，但均对后期的绘画产生了重要影响。
第三阶段约为11世纪中期，大约为1042年之前。这一时期的主要遗址有聂拉康、塔波寺主殿的修复期和芒囊寺。塔波寺主殿的修复和芒囊寺创建均系古格王绛曲沃为了迎接东印度阿底峡大师的到来而重新修饰或新建。聂拉康的壁画介于托林寺西北塔和塔波寺修复期之间，即可能为1025-1041年之间，并且聂拉康的北壁金刚界曼荼罗的壁画早于南壁法界语自在曼荼罗的绘画。
这一时期的图像内容出现了金刚界曼荼罗和法界语自在文殊曼荼罗，呈水平式布局。它们的出现与仁钦桑布对《金刚顶经》和《法界语自在曼荼罗经》的翻译或重译有关。西藏西部地区的水平式构图的曼荼罗是一种古老的构图形式，出现于发展充分的圆圈式曼荼罗出现之前。
这一时期的艺术风格主要为B型IV式和V式，在早期也有I式风格的出现。BV式系由BIV式发展而来，而BIV式系由BI和BII发展而来。
第四阶段为11世纪下半叶至12世纪初期。大约从1042年阿底峡抵达古格至12上半叶普兰古格王国分裂。这一时期的主要遗址有东嘎1、2、3号石窟、阿济寺杜康殿、那科寺译师殿和松达寺杜康殿。
这一时期寺院的平面布局均呈凸字形，在后殿配置泥塑的金刚界曼荼罗诸尊，在主殿的两侧壁面绘制金刚界曼荼罗、法界语自在曼荼罗以及其它的曼荼罗。成对出现的金刚界曼荼罗和法界语自在曼荼罗是这一时期比较突出的题材，几乎每一座寺院或石窟都有这一对曼荼罗出现，并且在图像上均十分完备。在构图上，这一时期的曼荼罗均呈圆圈式的构图。这一时期瑜珈密题材的流行以及构图方式的变化，与更多经典的被翻译以及人们对于它们熟知程度的增加有关，当然这些题材的出现也是统治者的有意选择。
在艺术风格上，这一时期的艺术风格尽管仍可看到克什米尔的影响，但是也出现了地方性的风格因素，可分为三种不同的形式，其中C型I式早于C型II式和III式，C型II式与III式之间根据目前的资料尚无法确定明确的相对年代早晚关系，但可以看出两者之间的地区性差异。
关键词：普兰-古格王国 益西沃 仁钦桑布 金刚界曼荼罗 法界语自在文殊曼荼罗 克什米尔风格
Iconography and Artistic Style of Western Tibetan Buddhist Art
from Late 10th century to the 11th Century
——Centered on the Iconographic Analysis of the Vajradhatu Mandala and the Dharmadhatu-Vagisvara-Manjusri-Mandala
Archaeology and Museology
Ph.D Candidate:Changhong,ZHANG Advisor:Prof.Wei,HUO
Western Tibet is of unique importance in the Tibetan Buddhist history especially from late 10th century to the 11th century. In 842 AD., the assassination of Glang-dar-ma resulted in the demise of Tubo dynasty. The descendants of Tubo court moved to western Tibet and established the kingdom of Gu-ge Pu-hrang in the 10th century. In order to consolidate the new regime, the king of Gu-ge kingdom, Lha bla-ma Ye-shes-’od, with the help from the great translator Rin-chen-bzang-po, made great efforts to reform and revive the Buddhism. Buddhism was introduced into Tibet for the second time from India and Kashmir which is called Phyi-dar. Lots of Buddhist remains of this period survived in west Tibet. The purpose of the article is to analyze the iconography and artistic style of earlier wall paintings preserved in western Tibet and then draw attention to the outline of early Buddhist art in western Tibet and its cultural context behind the historical background.
The Buddhist art can be divided into four different phases:
1) The first phase: Late 10th century. In 986, Ye-shes-’od issued the ordinance, which marked the beginning of phyi-dar in mNga’ris-skor-gsum. Until 996, a few monasteries were founded in Gu-ge Pu-hrang territory. Tabo cella is one of the earliest chapels in this period, which was founded in 996. The iconographic program of this phase is the three-family configuration, Vairocana of Buddha family, Avalokitesvara of Padma family and Vajrapani of Vajra family. Similar composition was found in Tubo empire period. The choice of the iconographic program indicates the Guge kings’ intention to obtain legitimacy and authority.
The murals of this phase were found in the entrance hall, ambulatory and some fragments of the cella of Tabo Assembly Hall. The figure style is awkward and did not receive the influence from Kashmir which showed more provincial influences from north-west India and local places. We call it Tape A in this paper. Some scholar uses the term of “Himalayan style” to refer to this kind of style.
2) The second phase: the first 25 years of the 11th century, about from 1001-1025 A.D.. Tholing stupas, Cave 79 of I section, Piyang site and the Malakartse Khar stupa belong to this second phase.
The iconographic program of this phase is still concentrated on the three-family configuration, but 8 offering goddesses, 4 guardians of vajradhatu were added and the images from garbhadhatu and vajradhatu mandala mixed together which seems indicate the confusion before the emergence of canonical texts and practices. The composition is that the central image is flanked by vertical figures.
The main artistic tradition of this phase is Kashmiri style which is related to the return of Rin-chen-bzang-po from Kashmir with 32 Kashmiri artists. The Kashmiri style in this phase has two different versions, Type BI, represented by Tholing northwest stupa and Type BII, represented by Tholing northeast sutpa. The Type BI and BII have the similar date. Both of the two different versions made great influences on later paintings.
3) The third phase: Middle11th century, before 1042. The main sites are Nyag lha-khang, Tabo assembly hall’s renovation period and Mangnang monastery. Both of the renovation of Tabo and the foundation of Mangnang were for the arrival of eastern Indian Pandita Atisa. The murals of Nyag lha-khang is between Tholing northwest stupa and Tabo renovation period, i.e. 1025-1042, and the paintings of the vajradhatu mandala in the north wall is earlier than that of the south wall, Dharmadhatu-Vagisvara-Manjusri-Mandala.
The important change in this phase was the appearance of vajradhatu mandala and Dharmadhatu-Vagisvara-Manjusri-Mandala. Both of them are horizontal composition which possibly reflected an ancient program before the emergence of the developed circle mandalas. The two mandalas appeared in this period should be related to the translations or re-translations of Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha(STTS) and Dharmadhatu-Vagisvara- Mandala.
The main artistic style of this phase is called BIV and BV, while BI also appeared in the earliest period of this phase. BV is later than BIV, and BIV is later than BI and BII.
4)The fourth phase: the second half of the 11th century to the beginning of the 12th century. it is possiblely from the arrival of Atisa in 1042 to the split of Gu-ge Pu-hrang kingdom in the first half of the 12th century. Dung-dkar Cave 1, Cave 2, Cave3, Alchi Dukhang, Nako translator temple and Sumda Dukhang belong to this phase.
The plan of the monastery of this period is a rectangular assembly hall with an apse in the back. Vajradhuta mandala of clay statues were placed in the apse and murals were painted on the side walls of the main hall which concentrated on the Vajradhuta mandala, Dharmadhatu-Vagisvara-Manjusri-Mandala and other mandalas. These paired mandalas consist of the main theme of the wall paintings, almost each monastery or cave has these two mandalas painted. Furthermore, the images in the two mandalas are very completed even including the Indian deities and the program is circled mandalas, not horizontal composition. The choices of the Yoga tantra system and the changes of the iconographic program should have been related to the more translations and much better understandings of the texts, and the rulers’ intended selection.
We can still see the Kashmir-derived influence in this period, but we also notice the appearance of local style elements. The style of this phase can be marked by CI, CII and CIII. CI is earlier than CII and CIII. We can not give a firm confirmation on the date of CII and CII, but we can still identify the regional different traditions inflected by the wall paintings.
Key Words: the kingdom of Gu-ge Pu-hrang Ye-shes-’od Rin-chen-bzang-po Vajradhuta mandala Dharmadhatu-Vagisvara-Manjusri-Mandala Kashmir Style
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